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To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.^[53] HP Pavilion DV9067 Battery

Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone’s politics has been dominated by two major political parties, the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), and the ruling All People’s Congress (APC), although other minor political parties have also existed but with no significant supports. The next election is scheduled for 17 November 2012.^[55] HP Pavilion DV9067EA Battery

The judicial power of Sierra Leone is vested in the judiciary, headed by the Chief Justice and comprising the Sierra Leone Supreme Court, which is the highest court in the country and its ruling therefore cannot be appealed; High Court of Justice; the Court of Appeal; the magistrate courts; and traditional courts in rural villages. HP Pavilion DV9068 Battery

The president appoints and parliament approves Justices for the three courts. The Judiciary have jurisdiction in all civil and criminal matters throughout the country. The current Sierra Leone’s Chief Justice is Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh, who was appointed by President Ernest Bai Koroma and took office on 25 January 2008 upon her confirmation by parliament. HP Pavilion DV9068EA Battery

She is the first woman in the history of Sierra Leone to hold such position.^[56]

Foreign relations

Sierra Leone has diplomatic relations that include China, Libya, Iran, and Cuba. Sierra Leone has good relations with the West, including the United States and has maintained historical ties with the United Kingdom and other former British colonies through membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.^[57] HP Pavilion DV9069EA Battery

 The United Kingdom has played a major role in providing aid to the former colony, together with administrative help and military training since intervening to end the Civil War in 2000.

a policy continued by the current. Sierra Leone, along with Liberia and Guinea form theMano River Union (MRU) primarily designed to implement development projects and promote regional economic integration between the three countries.^[58]

the African Union, the African Development Bank(AFDB), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), and the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).^[59] Sierra Leone is also a member of theInternational Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US military (as covered under Article 98). HP Pavilion DV9072 Battery

The Office of National Security plays an important security coordination role, including in the leadup to the 2007 elections.^[60]

Provinces and districts

The first three provinces are further divided into 12 districts, and the districts are further divided into 149 chiefdoms. The Local Government Act 2004 designated units of government called localities each of which would have a council to exercise authority and carry out functions at a local level. HP Pavilion DV9073 Battery

There are 13 district councils, one for each of the 12 districts and one for the Western Area Rural, and six municipalities each with a council, Freetown, Bo, Bonthe, Kenema, Koidu and Makeni.

Economy

 Investor andconsumer confidence continue to rise, adding impetus to the country’s economic recovery. There is greater freedom of movement and the successful re-habitation and resettlement of residential areas.

The country is among the top 10 diamond producing nations in the world. Mineral exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is a major producer of gem-quality diamonds. Though rich in diamonds, it has historically struggled to manage their exploitation andexport. HP Pavilion DV9074EA Battery

Annual production of Sierra Leone’s diamond estimates range between $250–300 million US$. Some of that is smuggled, where it is possibly used for money laundering or financing illicit activities. Formal exports have dramatically improved since the civil war with efforts to improve the management of them having some success. HP Pavilion DV9075EA Battery

In October 2000, a UN-approved certification system for exporting diamonds from the country was put in place and led to a dramatic increase in legal exports. In 2001, the government created a mining community development fund (DACDF), which returns a portion of diamond export taxes to diamond mining communities. HP Pavilion DV9075EU Battery

The fund was created to raise local communities’ stake in the legal diamond trade.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, economic growth rate slowed because of a decline in the mining sector and increasingcorruption among government officials.

Over the next decade much of the formal economy was destroyed in the country’s civil war. Since the end of hostilities in January 2002, massive infusions of outside assistance have helped Sierra Leone begin to recover. HP Pavilion DV9076 Battery

Much of the recovery will depend on the success of the government’s efforts to limit corruption by officials, which many feel was the chief cause for the civil war. A key indicator of success will be the effectiveness of government management of its diamond sector.

Sierra Rutile Limited, owned by a consortium of United States and European investors, began commercial mining operations near the city of Bonthe, in the Southern Province, in early 1979. It was then the largest non-petroleum US investment in West Africa. The export of 88,000 tons realized $75 million in export earnings in 1990. HP Pavilion DV9077 Battery

In 1990, the company and the government made a new agreement on the terms of the company’s concession in Sierra Leone. Rutile and bauxite mining operations were suspended when rebels invaded the mining sites in 1995, but exports resumed in 2005. The new Mines and Minerals Act was passed by Parliament in November 2009, HP Pavilion DV9077EA Battery

which aimed to improve concessions management in the Ministry of Mineral Resources. Sierra Leone is an EITI candidate country.

The government is trying to increase food and cash crop production and upgrade small farmer skills. The government works with several foreign donors to operate integrated rural development and agricultural projects.

There is high unemployment, particularly among the youth and ex-combatants. Authorities have been slow to implement reforms in the civil service, and the pace of the privatisation programme is also slacking and donors have urged its advancement.

The central bank of the country is the Bank of Sierra Leone which is located in the capital, Freetown. Sierra Leone operates a floating exchange rate system, and foreign currencies can be exchanged at any of the commercial banks, recognised foreign exchange bureaux and mosthotels. HP Pavilion DV9079EA Battery

Credit card use is limited in Sierra Leone, though they may be used at some hotels and restaurants. There are a few internationally linked automated teller machines that accept Visa cards in Freetown operated by ProCredit Bank.

Demographics

The country’s population is mostly young, with an estimated 41.7 percent under 15, and rural, with an estimated 62 percent of people living outside the cities.^[5] As a result of migration to cities the population is becoming more urban with an estimated rate of urbanisation growth of 2.9 percent a year. HP Pavilion DV9080EA Battery

Population density varies greatly with the country. The Western Area Urban District, including Freetown, the capital and largest city, has a population density of 1,224 persons per square km whereas the largest district Koinadugu has a density of 21.4 persons per square km.^[76] HP Pavilion DV9081 Battery

Although English is the official language,^[77] spoken at schools, government administration and the media, Krio (derived from English and several indigenous African languages, the language of the Sierra Leone Krio people), is the most widely spoken language in virtually all parts of Sierra Leone. HP Pavilion DV9081EA Battery

The Krio language is spoken by 97% of the country’s population^[5][78] and unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.^[13] According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, HP Pavilion DV9082 Battery

Sierra Leone had a population of 8,700refugees and asylum seekers at the end of 2007. Nearly 20,000 Liberian refugees voluntarily returned to Liberia over the course of 2007. Of the refugees remaining in Sierra Leone nearly all were Liberian.

Other figures are estimates from the source cited. Different sources give different estimates. Some claim that Magburaka should be included in the above list, but one source estimates the population at only 14,915,^[81] whilst another puts it as high as 85,313. HP Pavilion DV9083 Battery

“Pandebu-Tokpombu” is presumably the extended town of Torgbonbu which had a population of 10,716 in the 2004 census, though “Gbendembu” had a larger population of 12,139 in that census. In the 2004 census, Waterloo had a population of 34,079. HP Pavilion DV9083EA Battery

 Religion

The 2007 UNHCR’s “Report on International Religious Freedom in Sierra Leone”^[83] estimated 60% Muslim, 20 to 30% Christian and 5 to 10% other beliefs, with many citizens practising a mixture of Islam and traditional indigenous religious beliefs or Christianity and traditional indigenous beliefs. HP Pavilion DV9084EA Battery

The Pew Research Center estimates the Muslim population at 71.3% (4,059,000).^[85] Muslims predominate in all of the country’s three provinces and the Western Area, though formerly they were concentrated in the north with the south being mainly Christian.

Ethnic groups

The Temne predominate in the Northern Province. The Mende likewise predominate in the South-Eastern Provinces. The Temne are largely muslims, while the Mende are about equal in numbers between muslims and christians. Sierra Leone’s national politics centres on the competition between the north-west, dominated by the Temne, and the south-east dominated by the Mende  . HP Pavilion DV9086 Battery

The Mende, who are believed to be descendants of the Mane, were originally in the Liberian hinterland. They began moving into Sierra Leone slowly and peacefully in the eighteenth century. Some notable ethnic Mende include Sierra Leone’s Independent leader and first Prime Minister Sir Milton Margai, second Prime MinisterSir Albert Margai; HP Pavilion DV9086EA Battery

former Sierra Leone Heads of Stata Julius Maada Bio and David Lansana; Former Sierra Leone’s Attorney General Sir Banja Tejan-Sie; former Sierra Leone Vice Presidents Solomon Berewa, Albert Joe Demby and Francis Minah; and arguably Sierra Leone’s most famous footballer Mohamed Kallon. HP Pavilion DV9087 Battery

The Temne are believed to have come from Futa Jallon, which is in present-day Guinea. Some notable ethnic Temne include one of Sierra Leone’s Independent leader and former government minister Kande Bureh; one of the founders of Sierra Leone’s ruling political party the APC Mohamed Bash Taqi; HP Pavilion DV9087EA Battery

former government ministersThaimu Bangura; Momodu Koroma, Abdul Serry-Kamal, Dr Kadi Sesay, Ibrahim Kemoh Sesay and Abass Bundu; former rebel leader Foday Sankoh; and Sierra Leone current health minister Zainab Hawa Bangura.

The Limba are native people of Sierra Leone. They have no tradition of origin and they have always lived in Sierra Leone since it was discovered. The Limba are primarily found in Northern Sierra Leone, particularly in Bombali, Kambia and Koinadugu District. HP Pavilion DV9088EA Battery

Since Independence, the Limba have traditionally dominated Sierra Leone’s politics, along with the Mende. Some notable ethnic Limba include Sierra Leone’s first president Siaka Stevens, the country’s second president Joseph Saidu Momoh and former Sierra Leone military Head of State Johnny Paul Koroma. HP Pavilion DV9089 Battery

Other ethnic Limba include former Sierra Leone vice president and one of the founding members of the APC party Christian Alusine Kamara-Taylor; current Sierra Leone defense minister Alfred Paolo Conteh; Finance minister Samura Kamara; and former Sierra Leone Inspector Generals of Police Brima Acha Kamara and Bambay Kamara. HP Pavilion DV9089EA Battery

The fourth largest ethnic group are the Fula at around (8%) of the population (descendants of 17th- and 18th-century Fulani settlers from the Fouta Djalonregion of Guinea); they live primarily in the northeast and the western area of Sierra Leone. The Fula are primarily traders and many live in middle classhomes. HP Pavilion DV9090 Battery

Because of their trading, the Fulas are found in virtually all parts of the country. Some notable ethnic Fula include one of the founding members of Sierra Leone’s independent and former education minister Amadu Wurie, Current Sierra Leone Chief Justice Umu Hawa Tejan Jalloh, Sierra Leone minister of LandsMomodu Allieu Pat-Sowe; HP Pavilion DV9090EA Battery

leader of the National Democratic Alliance opposition party Amadu Jalloh; and Sierra Leone minister of education Minkailu Bah.

who immigrated to Sierra Leone during the late 19th to mid 20th century). The Mandinka are predominantly found in the east and the northern part of the country, and they are the largest inhabitant of the large towns, most notably Kabal and Falaba in Koinadugu District in the north and Yengema, Kono District in the east of the country. HP Pavilion DV9091EA Battery

Some notable Mandingo includes Sierra Leone’s third president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah; former Sierra Leone’s vice president Sorie Ibrahim Koroma; Sierra Leonean politician and businessman Usman Boie Kamara; Sierra Leone Minister of Mines Minkailu Mansaray; HP Pavilion DV9092 Battery

former commissioner of the Sierra Leone National Commission for Social Action (NACSA) Ibrahim Kanja Sesay; and former Sierra Leone minister of Information Kanji Daramy.

The Kono are descendants from Guinea and they are primarily farmers and diamond miners. Some notable ethnic Kono include current Sierra Leone vice president Alhaji Samuel Sam-Sumana; former Sierra Leone Attorney general Abu Aiah Koroma; current Sierra Leone’s first lady Sia Koroma; HP Pavilion DV9095EU Battery

former chief of defense staff of the Sierra Leone military Komba Mondeh and Tamba Gborie; current Council chairwoman of Kono District Finda Diana Konomani and Sierra Leonean musician Sia Boss.

West Indian an Liberated African slaves landed in Freetown between 1787 and about 1885) are primarily found in the capital city of Freetown and its surrounding Western Area. Creole culture is unlike that of all other ethnic groups in Sierra Leone, and it is typical of Western culture and ideals. HP Pavilion DV9095XX Battery

Notable Krios include One of Sierra Leone’s Independent leader Isaac Wallace-Johnson; former Sierra Leone Governor General Henry Josiah Lightfoot Boston; former Sierra Leone Heads of State Valentine Strasser and Andrew Juxon-Smith; current Speaker of Sierra Leone’s Parliament Abel Nathaniel Bankole Stronge, HP Pavilion DV9096EA Battery

Sierra Leone current minister of Energy Oluniyi Robbin-Coker; Chief Commisioner of the Sierra Leone National Electoral Commission Christiana Thorpe; and prominents Sierra Leonean journalists Sylvia Blyden and Syl Cheney-Coker

with whom they share similar culture and history and are generally known as the Krio muslimsdue to the fact that they are largely muslims. The Oku are found primarily in the capital Freetown and its surrounding Western Area, particularly in the neighbourhood’s of Fourah Bay and Foulah Town where they form the majority of the population. HP Pavilion DV9097EA Battery

A significant numbers of Oku can be found in the city of Waterlooin the Western Area. Notable Oku include One of Sierra Leone’s Independent leader and former government minister Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha; former Commissioner of Sierra Leone Anti-Corruption Commission Abdul Tejan-Cole; and Sierra Leonean footballer Ahmed Deen. HP Pavilion DV9097XX Battery

Other minority ethnic groups are the Kuranko, who are related to the Manding. The Kuranko are believed to have begun arriving in Sierra Leone from Guinea in about 1600 and settle in the north, particularly in Koinadugu District. The Loko in the north are native people of Sierra Leone and they are believed to have lived in Sierra Leone since it was discovered. HP Pavilion DV9098 Battery

The Susu and Yalunka are primarily found in the far north in Kambia District close to the border with Guinea. The Susu and Yalunka are related people and they are both descendants from Guinea. The Kissi and the much smaller group of Vai are further inland in Kailahun District and Pujehun District in the South-East close to the border with Liberia. HP Pavilion DV9098XX Battery

On the coast in Bonthe District in the south are the Sherbro, who are native people of Sierra Leone and have settled in Sherbro island since it was founded. In the past, Sierra Leoneans were noted for their educational achievements, trading activity, entrepreneurial skills, and arts and crafts work, particularly wood carving. HP Pavilion DV9099EA Battery

Many are part of larger ethnic networks extending into several countries, which link West African states in the area. But the level of education and infrastructure has declined sharply over the last 30 years.”Sierra Leone (02/08)”. “U.S. Department of State”. Retrieved 17 February 2008. List of Sierra LeoneansHP Pavilion DV9099XX Battery

Education

The Sierra Leone Civil War resulted in the destruction of 1,270 primary schools and in 2001 67 percent of all school-age children were out of school.^[41] The situation has improved considerably since then with primary school enrollment doubling between 2001 and 2005 and the reconstruction of many schools since the end of the war.^[88] HP Pavilion DV9105EU Battery

Students at primary schools are usually 6 to 12 years old, and in secondary schools 13 to 18. Primary education is free and compulsory in government-sponsored public schools.

University of Makeni (established initially in September 2005 as The Fatima Institute, the college was granted university status in August 2009, and assumed the name University of Makeni, or UNIMAK), and Njala University, primarily located in Bo District. HP Pavilion DV9200CTO Battery

Njala University was established as the Njala Agricultural Experimental Station in 1910 and became a university in 2005.^[90] Teacher training colleges and religious seminaries are found in many parts of the country.

Health

Since April 2010, the government has instituted the Free Health Care Initiative which commits to free services for pregnant and lactating women and children under 5. This policy has been supported by increased aid from the United Kingdom and is recognised as a progressive move that other African countries may follow.^[91] HP Pavilion DV9201CA Battery

Life expectancy at birth is estimated to be 56.55 years in 2012.^[92] Estimates for infant mortality in Sierra Leone are among the highest in the world; for every 1,000 live births, approximately 77 children do not survive to their first birthday.^[93] The maternal death rates are also the highest in the world, at 2,000 deaths per 100,000 live births. HP Pavilion DV9201TX Battery

The country suffers from epidemic outbreaks of diseases including yellow fever, cholera, lassa fever and meningitis.^[94] The prevalence of HIV/AIDS in the population is 1.6 percent, higher than the world average of 1 percent but lower than the average of 6.1 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa.^[95] HP Pavilion DV9202EA Battery

During the Civil War (1991–2002) many soldiers took part in atrocities and many children were forced to fight. This left them traumatized with an estimated 400.000 people (by 2009) being mentally ill. Also thousands of former child soldiers have fallen into substance abuse as they try to blunt their memories. HP Pavilion DV9202TX Battery

Mental healthcare in the country is almost non existing with many patients trying to cure themselves with the help of traditional healers.^[96]

Military

are the unified armed forces of Sierra Leone responsible for the territorial security of Sierra Leone’s border and defending the national interests of Sierra Leone within the framework of its international obligations. The armed forces were formed after independence in 1961,
HP Pavilion DV9203XX Battery

on the basis of elements of the former British Royal West African Frontier Force present in the country. The Sierra Leone Armed Forces currently consist of around 15,500 personnel, comprising the largest Sierra Leone Army,^[97] the Sierra Leone Navy and the Sierra Leone Air Wing.^[98] HP Pavilion DV9204TX Battery

The president of Sierra Leone is the Commander in Chief of the military, with the Minister of Defence responsible for defence policy and the formulation of the armed forces. The current Sierra Leone Defence Minister is Ret. Major Alfred Paolo Conteh. HP Pavilion DV9204XX Battery

The Military of Sierra Leone also has a Chief of the Defence Staff who is a uniformed military official responsible for the administration and the operational control of the Sierra Leone military.^[99] Brigadier General Alfred Nelson-Williams who was appointed by president Koroma succeeded the retired Major General Edward Sam M’boma on 12 September 2008 as the Chief of Defence Staff of the Military.^[100] HP Pavilion DV9205CA Battery

Before Sierra Leone gained independence in 1961 the military was known as the Royal Sierra Leone Military Force. The military seized control in 1968, bringing the National Reformation Council into power. On 19 April 1971, when Sierra Leone became a republic, the Royal Sierra Leone Military Forces were renamed the Republic of Sierra Leone Military Force (RSLMF).^[101] HP Pavilion DV9205EU Battery

The RSLMF remained a single service organization until 1979, when the Sierra Leone Navy was established. It then remained largely unchanged for 16 years until in 1995 when Defence Headquarters was established and the Sierra Leone Air Wing formed. This gave the need for the RSLMF to be renamed the Armed Forces of the Republic of Sierra Leone (AFRSL). HP Pavilion DV9205TX Battery

Law enforcement

The key mission of the Sierra Leone Police include to prevent crime, to protect life andproperty, to detect and prosecute offenders, to maintain public order, to ensure safety and security, to enhance access to justice. The Sierra Leone Police is headed by the Inspector General of Police, the professional head of the Sierra Leone Police force and is appointed by the President of Sierra Leone. HP Pavilion DV9206CA Battery

Each one of Sierra Leone’s 14 districts is headed by a District Police commissioner who is the professional head of their respective district. The Districts Police Commissioners report directly to the Inspector General of Police at the Sierra Leone Police headquarters in Freetown. HP Pavilion DV9206EU Battery

The current Inspector General of Police isBrima Acha Kamara who was appointed to the position by former president Ahmad Tejan Kabbah.

Transportation

There are 11,300 kilometres^[102] of highways in Sierra Leone, of which 904 km (562 mi)^[102] are paved (about 8% of the roads). Sierra Leone highways are linked to Conakry, Guinea, and Monrovia, Liberia. Sierra Leone has the largest natural harbour on the African continent, HP Pavilion DV9206XX Battery

allowing international shipping through the Queen Elizabeth II Quay in the Cline Town area of eastern Freetown or through Government Wharf in central Freetown. There are 800 km (497 mi) of waterways in Sierra Leone, of which 600 km (373 mi) are navigable year-round. Major port cities areBonthe, Freetown, Sherbro Island and Pepel. HP Pavilion DV9207TX Battery

There are ten regional airports in Sierra Leone, and one international airport. The Lungi International Airport located in the coastal town of Lungi in Northern Sierra Leone is the primary airport for domestic and international travel to or from Sierra Leone. Passengers cross the river to Aberdeen Heliports in Freetown by hovercraft, ferry or a helicopter. HP Pavilion DV9207US Battery

Helicopters are also available from the airport to other major cities in the country. The airport has paved runways longer than 3,047m. The other airports have unpaved runways, and seven have runways 914 to 1,523 metres long; the remaining two have shorter runways. This country appears on the E.U. list of prohibited countries with regard to the certification of airlines. HP Pavilion DV9208NR Battery

This means that no airline which is Sierra Leone registered may operate services of any kind within the European Union. This is due to substandard safety standards.^[103]

Drinking water supply

Despite efforts by the government and numerous non-governmental organizations, access has not much improved since the end of the Sierra Leone Civil War in 2002, stagnating at about 50% and even declining in rural areas.^[104]In the capital Freetown, taps often run dry. It is hoped that a new dam in Orugu, for which China committed financing in 2009, HP Pavilion DV9209TX Battery

will alleviate water scarcity.^[105] 8.8 Million USD to Sierra Leone for Orugu Dam], 15 June 2009</ref>

Those with access in rural areas were served almost exclusively by protected wells. The 68% of the rural population without access to an improved water source relied on surface water (50%), unprotected wells (9%) and unprotected springs (9%). Only 20% of the urban population and 1% of the rural population had access to piped drinking water in their home. HP Pavilion DV9210CA Battery

Compared to the 2000 survey access has increased in urban areas, but has declined in rural areas, possibly because facilities have broken down because of a lack of maintenance.^[104][106]

responsibility for water supply in areas outside the capital was passed from the central government to local councils. In Freetown the Guma Valley Water Company remains in charge of water supply.

Food and food customs

The rice is prepared numerous ways, and topped with a variety of sauces made from some of Sierra Leone’s favorite toppings, including potato leaves, cassava leaves, Craincrain, hot peppers, peanuts, beans, okra soup, fish, beef, chicken, eggplant, onions, and tomatoes and chicken bones, which are a delicacy, HP Pavilion DV9210TX Battery

because their brittle nature makes the sweet marrow inside easily accessible.

Local bars in some towns and villages will also sell poyo the sweet, lightly fermented palm wine tapped from the high tops of palm trees. Poyo bars can be areas of lively informal debate and conversation among men.

Depending on the occasion, a portion may also be offered to the ancestors, to honor their memory. Another common practice in this sense is to pour liquor in the ancestors’ honor in the corners of a house. Other food traditions vary with region or religion: Mende Muslims, for instance, will mark a burial ceremony with lehweh, a ball of rice flour mixed with water and sugar, served with a kola nut on top. HP Pavilion DV9211TX Battery

Football is by far the most popular sport in Sierra Leone. The Sierra Leone national football team, popularly known as theLeone Stars, represents the country in international competitions. It has never qualified for the FIFA World Cup but participated in the 1994 and 1996 African Cup of Nations. HP Pavilion DV9212EA Battery

When the national football team, the Leone Stars have a match, Sierra Leoneans across the country come together united in support of the national team; and street across the country are virtually empty as people rush to their local radio and television stations to follow the live match. HP Pavilion DV9212TX Battery

The country’s national television network, The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) broadcasts the national football team live match, along with many radio stations throughout the country. Some well known Sierra Leonean footballers include Mohamed Kallon, HP Pavilion DV9213EA Battery

 Mohamed Bangura, Rodney Strasser, Ibrahim Teteh Bangura, Kewullay Conteh, national team captain Ibrahim Kargbo, Alhassan Bangura,Sheriff Suma, Mohamed Kamara, Umaru Bangura, Albert Jarrett, and Kei Kamara.

Clubs from across the country compete in the league. The two biggest and most successful football clubs are East End Lions and Mighty Blackpool, but Kallon F.C. has enjoyed contemporary success. Kallon F.C. won the Premier League and the Sierra Leonean FA Cup in 2006, and eliminated 2006 Nigerian Premier League Champions Ocean Boys FC in the 2007 CAF Champions League first qualifying round, HP Pavilion DV9214EA Battery

but later lost to ASEC Mimosas of Ivory Coast in the second qualifying round for the group stage.

The Sierra Leone cricket team represents Sierra Leone in international cricket competitions, and is among the best in West Africa. It became an affiliate member of the International Cricket Council in 2002. It made its international debut at the 2004 African Affiliates Championship, where it finished last of eight teams. HP Pavilion DV9214TX Battery

But at the equivalent tournament in 2006, Division Three of the African region of the World Cricket League, it finished as runner-up to Mozambique, and just missed a promotion to Division Two.

thus qualifying for the Under-19 World Cup qualifying tournament with nine other teams.^[110] However, the team was unable to obtain Canadian visas to play in the tournament, which was held in Toronto.^[111]

The squad is mostly home-based, with a few foreign players.

Media

In the 1860s, the country became a journalist hub for Africa, with professionals travelling to the country from across the continent. At the end of the nineteenth century, the industry went into decline, and when radio was introduced in the 1930s, it became the primary communication media in the country. HP Pavilion DV9216TX Battery

The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service (SLBS) was created by the government in 1934 making it the earliest English language radio broadcaster service in West Africa. The service began broadcasting television in 1963, with coverage extended to all the districts in the country in 1978. HP Pavilion DV9217EA Battery

Print media is not widely read in Sierra Leone, especially outside Freetown, partially due to the low levels of literacy in the country.^[112] In 2007 there were 15 daily newspapers in the country, as well as those published weekly.^[113] Among newspaper readership, young people are likely to read newspapers weekly and older people daily. HP Pavilion DV9217TX Battery

The majority of newspapers are privately run and are often critical of the government. The standard of print journalism tends to be low due to lack of training, and people trust the information published in newspapers less than that found on the radio.

These levels do vary between areas of the country, with the Western Area having the highest levels and Kailahun the lowest. Stations mainly consist of local commercial stations with a limited broadcast range, combined with a few stations with national coverage. The United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) runs one of the most popular stations in the country, broadcasting programs in a range of languages. HP Pavilion DV9218TX Battery

Content includes news of UN activities and human rights information, as well as music and news. The UN missions will withdraw in 2008 and the UN Radio’s future is uncertain. There is also a government station run by the SLBS that transmits on FM and short-wave. FM relays of BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America are also broadcast. HP Pavilion DV9219EA Battery

Outside the capital Freetown television is not watched by a great many people. There are two national, free terrestrial television stations in Sierra Leone, one run by the government SLBS and the other a private station, ABC Television-Africa (ABC). HP Pavilion DV9219TX Battery

In 2007, a pay-per-view service was also introduced by GTV as part of a pan-African television service in addition to the nine year old sub-Saharan Digital satellite television service (DStv) originating from Multichoice Africa in South Africa. Internet access in Sierra Leone has been sparse but is on the increase, especially since the introduction of wirelessservices across the country. HP Pavilion DV9220CA Battery

There are nine internet service providers (ISPs) operating in the country. Freetown has a city wide wireless network and internet cafes and other businesses offering internet access. Problems experienced with access to the Internet include an intermittent electricity supply and a slow connection speed in the country outside Freetown. HP Pavilion DV9220EU Battery

The Sierra Leone constitution guarantees freedom of speech, and freedom of the press; however, the government maintains strong control of media, and at times restricts these rights in practice. Some subjects are seen as taboo by society and members of the political elite; HP Pavilion DV9220TX Battery

imprisonment and violence have been used by the political establishment against journalists.^[114][115] Under legislation enacted in 1980, all newspapers must register with the Ministry of Information and pay sizeable registration fees. The Criminal Libel Law, including Seditious Libel Law of 1965, is used to control what is published in the media.^[115] HP Pavilion DV9220US Battery

In 2006, President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah committed to reforming the laws governing the press and media to create a freer system for journalists to work in.^[115] As of 2012, Sierra Leone is ranked 63rd on Reporters Without Borders’ Press Freedom Index. HP Pavilion DV9221EA Battery,HP Pavilion DV9221TX Battery,HP Pavilion DV9222TX Battery

Sierra Leone ⁱ/siːˌɛrə liːˈoʊn/ (Krio: Salone), officially the Republic of Sierra Leone, is a country inWest Africa. It is bordered by Guinea to the north and east, Liberia to the southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west and southwest. Sierra Leone covers a total area of 71,740 km² (27,699 sq mi)^[2] and has an estimated population of 6.3 million. HP Pavilion DV9000 Battery

It was a colony under the auspices of the Sierra Leone Company from 11 March 1792 until it became a British colony in 1808.

Freetown is the capital, largest city as well as its economic, educational, cultural and financial centre. The second largest city is Bo. Other major cities are Kenema, Makeni and Koidu Town.

which are subdivided into fourteen districts. The districts have their owndirectly elected local government known as district council, headed by a council chairman. The country’s six municipalities of Freetown, Bo, Kenema, Makeni, Koidu Town and the coastal town of Bonthe have their own directly elected city councils headed by mayors. HP Pavilion DV9000Z Battery

Sierra Leone is a constitutional representative democratic republic, whereby the President is both thehead of state and the head of government. Legislative power is vested by the House of Parliament of Sierra Leone. The Judiciary of Sierra Leone is independent of the executive and the legislative and is headed by the Supreme Court. HP Pavilion DV9001CA Battery

Since Independence in 1961 to present, Sierra Leone’s politics have been dominated by two major political parties: the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP) and the All People’s Congress(APC).^[7][8] Other political parties have also existed throughout but with no significant supports. HP Pavilion DV9001EA Battery

The country has relied on mining, especially diamonds, for its economic base. It is among the top diamond producing nations in the world, and mineral exports remain the main foreign currency earner. Sierra Leone is also among the largest producers of titanium and bauxite, and a major producer of gold. HP Pavilion DV9001TX Battery

The country has one of the world’s largest deposits of rutile. Sierra Leone is also home to the third largest natural harbour in the world where shipping from all over the globe berth at Freetown’s famous Queen Elizabeth II Quay. Despite this natural wealth, 70% of its people live in poverty.^[9] HP Pavilion DV9001XX Battery

Sierra Leone is a predominantly Muslim country, though with an influential Christian minority. Sierra Leone is ranked as one of the most religiously tolerant nations in the world.^[10][11][12] People are often married across ethnic and religious boundaries. Muslims and Christians collaborate and interact with each other peacefully.^[10] Religious violence is very rare in the country. HP Pavilion DV9003CA Battery

The population of Sierra Leone comprises sixteen ethnic groups, each with its own language and custom. The two largest and most influential are the Mende and Temne. The two are about equal in numbers and each comprises just over 30% of the population  . The Mende are predominantly found in South-Eastern Sierra Leone; the Temne likewise predominate in Northern Sierra Leone. HP Pavilion DV9003EA Battery

Although English is the language of instruction in schools and the official language in government administration, the Krio language (derived from English and several indigenous African languages) is the primary language of communication among Sierra Leone’s different ethnic groups, and is spoken by 95% of the country’s population.^[5] HP Pavilion DV9003TX Battery

The Krio Language unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other.^[13]

and over two million people displaced in neighbouring countries; mainly to Guinea, which was home to around one million Sierra Leonean refugees.^[14]ECOMOG used cluster bomb in the war against convention.^[15] The war was resolved in 2002 after the Nigerian-led ECOMOG troops were heavily reinforced by a British force spearheaded by 1st Bn The Parachute Regiment, HP Pavilion DV9004TX Battery

supported by the British Royal Navy The arrival of this force resulted in the defeat of rebel forces and restored the civilian government elected in 1996. On 18 January 2002 President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah declared the civil war officially over.^[16] Since then the country has re-established a functioningdemocracy. HP Pavilion DV9004XX Battery

Early inhabitants of Sierra Leone included the Sherbro, Temne and Limba peoples, and later the Mende,^[17]who knew the country as Romarong, and the Kono who settled in the east of the country.^[18] In 1462, it was visited by the Portuguese explorer Pedro da Cintra, who dubbed it Serra de Leão, meaning “Lion Mountains”.HP Pavilion DV9005CA Battery

Sierra Leone later became an important centre of the transatlantic trade in slavesuntil 11 March 1792 when Freetown was founded by the Sierra Leone Company as a home for former enslavedfrom (or freed by) the British Empire.^[21] In 1808, Freetown became a British Crown Colony, and in 1896, the interior of the country became a British Protectorate;^[18] in 1961, the two regions combined and gainedindependence. HP Pavilion DV9005EA Battery

Early history

Sierra Leone’s dense tropical rainforest largely protected it from the influence of any pre-colonial African empires^[25] and from further Islamic influence of the Mali Empire, the Islamic faith however became common in the 18th century.^[26]

In 1462,Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped the hills surrounding what is now Freetown Harbour, naming shaped formation Serra de Leão (Portuguese for Lion Mountains).^[20]The Italian rendering of this geographic formation is Sierra Leone, which became the country’s name. HP Pavilion DV9006EA Battery

Soon after Portuguese traders arrived at the harbour and by 1495 a fort that acted as a trading post had been built.^[27] The Portuguese were joined by the Dutch and French; all of them using Sierra Leone as a trading point for slaves. In 1562, the English joined the trade in human beings when Sir John Hawkins shipped 300 enslaved people, acquired ‘by the sword and partly by other means’, to the new colonies in America.^[29] HP Pavilion DV9006TX Battery

Early colonies

Many of the “black poor” were African Americans, who had been given their freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. After establishing Granville Town, disease and hostility from the indigenous people eliminated the first group of colonists and destroyed their settlement. HP Pavilion DV9007TX Battery

A second Granville Town was established by 64 remaining colonists.^[30]

They had been given land in Nova Scotia and a few had died from the harsh winters there. These colonists built the second (and only permanent) Colony of Sierra Leone and the settlement of Freetown on 11 March 1792. In Sierra Leone they were called the Nova Scotian Settlers or ‘Nova Scotians’ but were commonly known as the Settlers. HP Pavilion DV9008EU Battery

The Settlers built Freetown and introduced architectural styles from the American South as well as Western fashion and American courtesy. In the 1790s, the Settlers voted for the first time in elections, as did women.^[31] The Sierra Leone Company refused to allow the settlers to take freehold of the land. Some of the Settlers revolted in 1799. HP Pavilion DV9008NR Battery

The revolt was only put down by the arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons, who also arrived via Nova Scotia. In 1800, Jamaican Maroons from Trelawny Town, Jamaica were settled via Nova Scotia.

The Institution met in 1807 to achieve more success by focusing on bettering the local economy, but it was constantly split between those British who meant to inspire local entrepreneurs and those with interest in the Macauley & Babington Company which held the (British) monopoly on Sierra Leone trade.^[32] HP Pavilion DV9009CL Battery

Beginning in 1808 (following the abolition of the slave trade in 1807), thousands of formerly enslaved Africans were liberated in Freetown. Most of these Liberated Africans or ‘Recaptives’ chose to remain in Sierra Leone. Cut off from their homes and traditions, HP Pavilion DV9009NR Battery

the Liberated Africans assimilated the Western styles of Settlers and Maroons and built a flourishing trade of flowers and beads on the West African coast. These returned Africans were from many areas of Africa, but principally the west coast. During the 19th century many black Americans, Americo Liberian ’refugees’, and particularly West Indians immigrated and settled in Freetown creating a new ethnicity called the Krio. HP Pavilion DV9009TX Battery

Colonial era

Fourah Bay College, established in 1827, rapidly became a magnet for English-speaking Africans on the West Coast. For more than a century, it was the only European-style university in western Sub-Saharan Africa.

The most notable was the Hut Tax war of 1898. The Hut Tax War consisted of a Northern front, led by Bai Bureh, and Southern front that were sparked at different times and for different reasons. Bureh’s fighters had the advantage over the vastly more powerful British for several months of the war. HP Pavilion DV9010EA Battery

Hundreds of British troops and hundreds of Bureh’s fighters were killed.^[33] Bai Bureh was finally captured on 11 November 1898 and sent into exile in the Gold Coast (now Ghana), while 96 of his comrades were hanged by the British.

however resistance continued throughout the colonial period in the form of intermittent rioting and chaotic labour disturbances. Riots in 1955 and 1956 involved “many tens of thousands” of natives in the protectorate.^[34]

In 1924, Sierra Leone was divided into a Colony and a Protectorate, with separate and different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate in 1947, when proposals were introduced to provide for a single political system for both the Colony and the Protectorate. HP Pavilion DV9011EA Battery

Most of the proposals came from the Protectorate. The Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, opposed the proposals, the main effect of which would have been to diminish their political power. It was due to the astute politics of Sir Milton Margai that the educated Protectorate elite was won over to join forces with the paramount chiefs in the face of Krio intransigence. HP Pavilion DV9011XX Battery

Later, Sir Milton used the same skills to win over opposition leaders and moderate Krio elements for the achievement of independence.

In 1953, Sierra Leone was granted local ministerial powers, and Sir Milton Margai, was elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone.^[35] The new constitution ensured Sierra Leone a parliamentary system within the Commonwealth of Nations.^[35] In May 1957, Sierra Leone held its first parliamentary election. HP Pavilion DV9012TX Battery

The SLPP, which was then the most popular political party in the colony of Sierra Leone, won the most seats in Parliament. Margai was also re-elected as Chief Minister by a landslide.

1960 Independence Conference

Queen Elizabeth II and British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod in the negotiations for independence held at the Lancaster House in London.All of the twenty four members of the Sierra Leonean delegation were prominent and well-respected politicians including Sir Milton’s younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, HP Pavilion DV9013CL Battery

the outspoken trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP strongman Lamina Sankoh, outspoken Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha,Dr John Karefa-Smart, professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, HP Pavilion DV9014EA Battery

former Freetown’s Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings educationist Amadu Wurie, and Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman.^[36]

however, the outspoken trade unionist Siaka Stevens was the only delegate who refused to sign Sierra Leone’s declaration of Independendence on the grounds that there had been a secret defence pact between Sierra Leone and Britain; another point of contention by Stevens was the Sierra Leonean government’s position that there would be no elections held before independence which would effectively shut him out of Sierra Leone’s political process . HP Pavilion DV9015EA Battery

Upon their return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens was promptly expelled from the People’s National Party (PNP).

Opposition of the SLPP government

Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohammed Bash-Taqui, S.A.T. Koroma and S.A. Fofana to form their own political party called the All People’s Congress (APC) in opposition of the SLPP government. Stevens took advantage of the dissatisfaction with the ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from the Northern part of Sierra Leone to form the APC; HP Pavilion DV9016EA Battery

and Stevens used the Northern part of Sierra Leone as his political base.

An Independent nation and Sir Milton Margai Administration

Thousands of Sierra Leoneans across the newly independent nation took to the street in celebration of independence. Sierra Leone retained a parliamentary system of government and was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The leader of the main oppositon APC, Siaka Stevens, along with outspoken critic of the SLPP government, HP Pavilion DV9017EA Battery

Isaac Wallace-Johnson, were arested and placed under house arrestedin Freetown, along with sixteen others charged with disrupting the independence celebration [12]. In May 1962 Sierra Leone held itsfirst general election as an Independent nation. The Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP) won plurality of seats in parliament and SirMilton Margai was re-elected as prime minister. HP Pavilion DV9017TX Battery

An important aspect of Sir Milton’s character was his self-effacement. He was neither corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of his power or status. Sir Milton’s government was based on the rule of law and the notion of separation of powers, with multiparty political institutions and fairly viable representative structures. HP Pavilion DV9018EA Battery

Margai used his conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials with a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employed a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups and the paramount chiefs in the provinces. HP Pavilion DV9018TX Battery

Sir Albert Administration

Kareefa-Smart received little support in Parliament in his attempt to have Margai stripped of the SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn in as Prime Minister, he immediately dismissed several senior government officials who had served under his elder brother Sir Milton’s government, as he viewed them as a threat to his administration. HP Pavilion DV9019TX Battery

Unlike his late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert resorted to increasingly authoritarian actions in response to protests and enacted several laws against the opposition All People’s Congress (APC) whilst attempting to establish a single-party state. HP Pavilion DV9020TX Battery

Unlike his late brother Milton, Sir Albert was opposed to the colonial legacy of allowing the country’s Paramount Chiefs executive powers, many of whom where key allies of his late brother Sir Milton; and he was seen as a threat to the existence of the ruling houses across the country. In 1967, Riots broke out in Freetown against Sir Albert’s policies; HP Pavilion DV9020XX Battery

in response Margai declare a state of emergency across the country. Sir Albert was accused of corruption and of a policy of affirmative action in favor of his own Mende ethnic group^[37]Although Sir Albert had the full backing of the country’s security forces, he called for a free and fair elections. HP Pavilion DV9021TX Battery

Three Military Coups, 1967–1968

Within hours after taking office, Stevens was ousted in a bloodless military coup led by the commander of the army Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who had appointed him to the position in 1964. Brigadier Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest in Freetown and insisted the determination of office of the Prime Minister should await the election of the tribal representatives to the house. HP Pavilion DV9022EA Battery

On 23 March 1968, A group of senior military officers in the Sierra Leone Army led by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode this action by seizing control of the government, arresting Brigadier Lansana, and suspending the constitution. The group constituted itself as the National Reformation Council (NRC) with Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith as its chairman and Head of State of the country [13]. HP Pavilion DV9022TX Battery

In April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves the Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement led by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthrew the NRC junta. The ACRM juntas arrested many senior NRC members. The constitution was reinstated, and power was returned to Stevens, who at last assumed the office of Prime Minister. .^[38] HP Pavilion DV9023 Battery

Stevens’ government and one-party state

During his first decade or so in power, Stevens renegotiated some of what he called “useless prefinanced schemes” contracted by his predecessors, both Albert Margai of the SLPP and Juxon-Smith of the NRC. Some of these policies by the SLPP and the NRC were said to have left the country in an economically deprived state. HP Pavilion DV9024 Battery

Stevens reorganized the country’s refinery, the government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, and a Cement factory. He cancelled Juxon-Smith’s construction of a Church and Mosque on the grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens began efforts that would later bridge the distance between the provinces and the city. HP Pavilion DV9024EA Battery

Roads and hospitals were constructed in the provinces, and Paramount Chiefs and provincial peoples became a prominent force in Freetown.

He removed the SLPP party from competitive politics in general elections, some believed, through the use of violence and intimidation. To maintain the support of the military, Stevens retained the popular John Amadu Bangura as the head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces. HP Pavilion DV9030US Battery

After the return to civilian rule, by-elections were held (beginning in autumn 1968) and an all-APC cabinet was appointed. Calm was not completely restored. In November 1968, unrest in the provinces led Stevens to declare a state of emergency across the country. Brigadier General Bangura, HP Pavilion DV9033 Battery

who had reinstated Stevens as Prime Minister, was widely considered the only person who could put the brakes on Stevens. The army was devoted to Bangura, and it was believed, in some quarters, that this made him potentially dangerous to Stevens. In January 1970, HP Pavilion DV9033CL Battery

Bangura was arrested and charged with conspiracy and plotting to commit a coup against the Stevens’ government. After a trial that lasted a few months, Bangura was convicted and on 29 March 1970, hanged in Freetown. HP Pavilion DV9035EA Battery

On 23 March 1971, a group of soldiers loyal to the executed Brigadier Bangura attempted an unsuccessful coup to topple the Stevens’ government. Several soldiers were arrested for their involvement in the coup attempt, including Corporal Foday Sankoh who was jailed for seven years at Freetown’s Pademba Road Prison, convicted of treason. HP Pavilion DV9035NR Battery

In April 1971, a new republican constitution was adopted under which Stevens became President. In the 1972 by-elections the opposition SLPP complained of intimidation and procedural obstruction by the APC and militia. These problems became so severe that the SLPP boycotted the 1973 general election; as a result the APC won 84 of the 85 elected seats.^[39] HP Pavilion DV9036 Battery

An alleged plot to overthrow president Stevens failed in 1974 and its leaders were executed. In March 1976, Stevens was elected without opposition for a second five-year term as president. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army and government officials including Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Mohamed Sorie Forna, HP Pavilion DV9036EA Battery

Brigadier GeneralIbrahim Bash Taqi and Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara were executed after being convicted for allegedly attempting a coup to topple president Stevens’ government.

However, the demonstration was quickly put down by the army and Stevens’ own SSD security forces, which he had created to maintain his hold on power. A general election was called later that year in which corruption was again endemic; the APC won 74 seats and the SLPP 15. HP Pavilion DV9037EA Battery

In 1978, the APC dominant parliament approved a new constitution making the country a one-party state. The 1978 constitition made the APC the only legal political party in Sierra Leone.^[40] This move led to another major demonstration against the government in many parts of the country but again it was put down by the army and the SSD police. HP Pavilion DV9038 Battery

Stevens is generally criticised for dictatorial methods and government corruption, but reduced ethnic polarisation in government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into his all-dominating APC government.

The APC named a new presidential candidate to succeed Stevens at their last delegate conference held in Freetown in November 1985. He was Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh, the commander of the Republic of Sierra Leone Armed Forces and Stevens’ own choice to succeed him. HP Pavilion DV9039 Battery

As head of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces, Major General Momoh was very loyal to Stevens who had appointed him to the position. Like Stevens, Momoh was also a member of the minority Limba ethnic group.

Momoh Administration

A one party parliamentary election between APC members was held in May 1986. President Momoh’s strong links with the army and his verbal attacks on corruption earned him much needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. With the lack of new faces in the new APC cabinet under president Momoh and the return of many of the old faces from Stevens government, HP Pavilion DV9040EA Battery

criticisms soon arose that Momoh was simply perpetuating the rule of Stevens. The next couple of years under the Momoh administration were characterised by corruption, which Momoh defused by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise his war against corruption, President Momoh announced a “Code of Conduct for Political Leaders and Public Servants.” HP Pavilion DV9040EU Battery

After an alleged attempt to overthrow President Momoh in March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials were arrested, including Vice-President Francis Minah, who was removed from office, convicted for plotting the coup, and executed by hanging in 1989 along with 5 others. HP Pavilion DV9040TX Battery

Multi-party constitution and Revolutionary United Front rebellion (1991 to 2001)

Based on the commission’s recommendations a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system was approved by the exclusive APC Parliament by a 60% majority vote, becoming effective on 1 October 1991. There was great suspicion that president Momoh was not serious about his promise of political reform, as APC rule continued to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. HP Pavilion DV9041 Battery

The brutal civil war that was going on in neighbouring Liberia played a significant role in the outbreak of fighting in Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—then leader of the National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly helped form theRevolutionary United Front (RUF) under the command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Saybana Sankoh, HP Pavilion DV9041EA Battery

an ethnic Temne from Tonkolili District in Northern Sierra Leone. Sankoh was a British trained former army corporal who had also undergone guerrilla training in Libya. Taylor’s aim was for the RUF to attack the bases of Nigerian dominated peacekeeping troops in Sierra Leone who were opposed to his rebel movement in Liberia. HP Pavilion DV9042 Battery

NPRC Junta

which sent president Momoh into exile inGuinea and the young soldiers established the National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) with Strasser as its chairman and Head of State of the country. The NPRC Junta immediately suspended the constitution, banned all political parties, HP Pavilion DV9043 Battery

limited freedom of speech and freedom of the press and enacted a rule-by-decree policy, in which soldiers were granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial, and challenges against such detentions in court were precluded. HP Pavilion DV9043EA Battery

The NPRC Junta maintained relations with the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and strengthened support for Sierra Leone-based ECOMOG troops fighting in Liberia. In December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against the NPRC administration of Strasser, aimed at freeing the detained Colonel Yahya Kanu, Colonel Kahota M.S. HP Pavilion DV9044 Battery

Dumbuya and former inspector general of police Bambay Kamara was foiled. Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura, and some junior army officers were identified as being behind the coup plot. The coup plot led to the execution of seventeen soldiers, including Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura, HP Pavilion DV9044EA Battery

Colonel Yahya Kanuand Lieutenant Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya. Several prominent members of the Momoh government who had been in detention at the Pa Demba Road prison, including former insepctor general of police Bambay Kamara were also executed  . On 5 July 1994 the deputy NPRC leader Seargent Solomon Musu was arrested and sent into exite after he was accused of planning a coup to topple Strasser. HP Pavilion DV9045 Battery

Strasser replaced Musa as deputy NPRC chairman with Captain Julius Maada Bio, who was instanly promoted by Strasser to Brigadier.

More and more of the country fell to RUF fighters, and by 1994 they held much of the diamond-rich Eastern Province and were at the edge of Freetown. In response, the NPRC hired several hundred mercenaries from the private firm Executive Outcomes. HP Pavilion DV9046 Battery

Within a month they had driven RUF fighters back to enclaves along Sierra Leone’s borders, and cleared the RUF from the Kono diamond producing areas of Sierra Leone

Strasser was immediately flown into exile in a military helicopter to Conakry, Guinea. In his first public broadcast to the nation following the 1996 coup, Brigadier Bio stated that his support for returning Sierra Leone to a democratically elected civilian government and his commitment to ending the Sierra Leone civil war were his motivations for the coup. HP Pavilion DV9047 Battery

Return to civilian rule

President Kabbah open dialogue with the RUF and invited RUF leader Foday Sankoh for peace negotiation.

AFRC junta

launched a military coup which sent President Kabbah into exile in Guinea and they established the Armed Forces Revolutionay Council (AFRC). Corporal Gborie quickly went to the SLBS FM 99.9 headquarters in Freetown to announce the coup to a shocked nation and to alert all soldiers across the country to report for guard duty. HP Pavilion DV9048EA Battery

The soldiers immediately released Koroma from prison and installed him as their chairman and Head of State. Koroma suspended the constitution, banned demonstrations, shut down all private radio stations in the country and invited the RUF to join the new junta government, HP Pavilion DV9049 Battery

with its leader Foday Sankoh as the Vice-Chairman of the new AFRC-RUF coalition junta government. Within days, Freetown was overwhelmed by the presence of the RUF combatants who came to the city in their thousands.

 remained loyal to President Kabbah and defended the Southern part Sierra Leone from the soldiers.

Kabbah’s government and the end of civil war

On 12 October 1998 twenty five soldiers in the Sierra Leone army, including Corporal Tamba Gborie, Brigadier Hassan Karim Conteh and ColonelAbdul Karim Sesay were executed after they were convicted at a court martial in Freetown for orchestrating the 1997 coup that ousted president Kabbah from power . HP Pavilion DV9050EA Battery

In October 1999, the United Nations agreed to send peacekeepers to help restore order and disarm the rebels. The first of the 6,000-member force began arriving in December, and the UN Security Council voted in February 2000 to increase the force to 11,000, and later to 13,000. HP Pavilion DV9051 Battery

But in May, when nearly all Nigerianforces had left and UN forces were trying to disarm the RUF in eastern Sierra Leone, Sankoh’s forces clashed with the UN troops, and some 500 peacekeepers were taken hostage as the peace accord effectively collapsed. The hostage crisis resulted in more fighting between the RUF and the government as UN troops launchedOperation Khukri to end the siege. HP Pavilion DV9051EA Battery

The Operation was successful with Indian and British Special Forces being the main contingents.

However, the British exceeded their original mandate, and took full military action to finally defeat the rebels and restore order. The British were the catalyst for the ceasefire that ended the civil war. Elements of the British Army, together with administrators and politicians, remain in Sierra Leone to this day, helping train the armed forces, HP Pavilion DV9052EA Battery

improve the infrastructure of the country and administer financial and material aid. Tony Blair, the Prime Minister of Britain at the time of the British intervention, is regarded as a hero by the people of Sierra Leone, many of whom are keen for more British involvement. Sierra Leoneans have been described as “The World’s Most Resilient People”.HP Pavilion DV9053 Battery

Between 1991 and 2001, about 50,000 people were killed in Sierra Leone’s civil war. Hundreds of thousands of people were forced from their homes and many became refugees in Guinea and Liberia. In 2001, UN forces moved into rebel-held areas and began to disarm rebel soldiers. By January 2002, the war was declared over. HP Pavilion DV9053EA Battery

In May 2002, Kabbah was re-elected president by a landslide. By 2004, the disarmament process was complete. Also in 2004, a UN-backed war crimes court began holding trials of senior leaders from both sides of the war. In December 2005, UN peacekeeping forces pulled out of Sierra Leone.

However, no presidential candidate won the 50% plus one vote majority stipulated in the constitution on the first round of voting. A runoff election was held in September 2007, and Ernest Bai Koroma, the candidate of the main opposition APC, was elected president. HP Pavilion DV9054EA Battery

Geography and climate

Sierra Leone is located on the west coast of Africa, lying mostly between latitudes 7° and 10°N (a small area is south of 7°), and longitudes 10° and 14°W.

Sierra Leone has a total area of 71,740 km² (27,699 sq mi), divided into a land area of 71,620 km² (27,653 sq mi) and water of 120 km² (46 sq mi).^[5] The country has four distinct geographical regions. In eastern Sierra Leone the plateau is interspersed with high mountains, where Mount Bintumani reaches 1,948 m (6,391 ft), the highest point in the country. HP Pavilion DV9055EA Battery

The upper part of the drainage basin of the Moa River is located in the south of this region.

The northern section of this has been categorised by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion, while the south is rain-forested plains and farmland. In the west Sierra Leone has some 400 km (249 mi) of Atlantic coastline, giving it both bountiful marine resources and attractive tourist potential. HP Pavilion DV9056EA Battery

The coast has areas of low-lying Guinean mangroves swamp. The national capital Freetown sits on a coastal peninsula, situated next to the Sierra Leone Harbour, the world’s third largest natural harbour.

the rainy season from May to November, and a dry season from December to May, which includes harmattan, when cool, dry winds blow in off the Sahara Desert and the night-time temperature can be as low as 16 °C (60.8 °F). The average temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and varies from around 26 °C (78.8 °F) to 36 °C (96.8 °F) during the year.^[44][45] HP Pavilion DV9057EA Battery

Environment

Deforestation, both for commercial timber and to make room for agriculture, is the major concern and represents an enormous loss of natural economic wealth to the nation.^[47] Mining and slash and burn for land conversion – such as cattle grazing – dramatically diminished forested land in Sierra Leone since the 1980s. HP Pavilion DV9058EA Battery

It is listed among countries of concern for emissions, as having Low Forest Cover with High Rates of Deforestation (LFHD).^[48] There are concerns that heavy logging continues in the Tama-Tonkoli Forest Reserve in the north, they have extended their operations to Nimini, Kono District, Eastern Province; HP Pavilion DV9059 Battery

Jui, Western Rural District, Western Area; Loma Mountains National Park, Koinadougu, Northern Province; and with plans to start operations in the Kambui Forest reserve in the Kenema District, Eastern Province.^[48]

Until 2002, Sierra Leone lacked a forest management system due to the civil war that caused tens of thousands of deaths. Deforestation rates have increased 7.3% since the end of the civil war.^[50] On paper, 55 protected areas covered 4.5% of Sierra Leone as of 2003. The country has 2,090 known species of higher plants, 147 mammals, 626 birds, 67 reptiles, 35 amphibians, and 99 fish species.^[50] HP Pavilion DV9060EA Battery

The Environmental Justice Foundation has documented how the number of illegal fishing vessels in Sierra Leone’s waters has multiplied in recent years. The amount of illegal fishing has significantly depleted fish stocks, depriving local fishing communities of an important resource for survival. HP Pavilion DV9060US Battery

The situation is particularly serious as fishing provides the only source of income for many communities in a country still recovering from over a decade of civil war.^[51]

Government and politics

Within the confines of the 1991 Constitution, supreme legislative powers are vested in Parliament, which is the law making body of the nation. Supreme executive authority rests in the president and members of his cabinet and judicial power with the judiciary of which the Chief Justice is head. HP Pavilion DV9062 Battery

The president is the head of state, the head of government and the commander-in-chief of the Sierra Leone Armed Forces and theSierra Leone Police. The president appoints and heads a cabinet of ministers, which must be approved by the Parliament. The president is elected by popular vote to a maximum of two five-year terms. HP Pavilion DV9062EA Battery

The president is the highest and most influential position within the government of Sierra Leone.

The current president of Sierra Leone is Ernest Bai Koroma, who was sworn in on 17 September 2007, shortly after being declared the winner of a tense run-off election over the incumbent Vice president, Solomon Berewa of the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP).^[54] HP Pavilion DV9064EA Battery

Next to the president is the Vice president, who is the second-highest ranking government official in the executive branch of the Sierra Leone Government. As designated by the Sierra Leone Constitution, the vice president is to become the new president of Sierra Leone upon the death, resignation, HP Pavilion DV9065 Battery

or removal of the president by parliament and to assume the Presidency temporarily while the president is otherwise temporarily unable to fulfil his or her duties. The vice president is elected jointly with the president as his or her running mate. Sierra Leone’s current vice president is Samuel Sam-Sumana, sworn in on 17 September 2007. HP Pavilion DV9065EA Battery

The Parliament of Sierra Leone is unicameral, with 124 seats. Each of the country’s fourteen districts is represented in parliament. 112 members are elected concurrently with the presidential elections; the other 12 seats are filled by paramount chiefs from each of the country’s 12 administrative districts. HP Pavilion DV9066 Battery

The current parliament in the August 2007 Parliamentary elections is made up of three political parties. The most recent parliamentary elections were held on 11 August 2007. The All People’s Congress (APC), won 59 of 112 parliamentary seats; theSierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP) won 43; and the People’s Movement for Democratic Change (PMDC) won 10. HP Pavilion DV9066EA Battery

To be qualified as Member of Parliament, the person must be a citizen of Sierra Leone, must be at least 21 years old, must be able to speak, read and write the English language with a degree of proficiency to enable him to actively take part in proceedings in Parliament; and must not have any criminal conviction.^[53] HP Pavilion DV9067 Battery

Since independence in 1961, Sierra Leone’s politics has been dominated by two major political parties, the Sierra Leone People’s Party (SLPP), and the ru

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On the Origin of Species

Charles Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Its full title was On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. For the sixth edition of 1872, the short title was changed to The Origin of Species. HP Omnibook XE3 Battery

Darwin’s book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. HP Omnibook XT1000 Battery

Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation. HP Omnibook XT1500 Battery

HP Pavilion DV1000 Battery

Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. HP Pavilion DV2000 Battery

HP Pavilion DV2100 Battery

Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream. HP Pavilion DV2200 Battery

The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. HP Pavilion DV2300 Battery

with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During the “eclipse of Darwinism” from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. HP Pavilion DV2500 Battery

With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin’s concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, now the unifying concept of the life sciences. HP Pavilion DV2600 Battery

DEVELOPMENTS BEFORE DARWIN’S THEORY

In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle;^[4] the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.^[5] HP Pavilion DV2700 Battery

Early Christian Church Fathers and Medieval European scholars interpreted the Genesis creation myth allegorically rather than as a literal historical account;^[6]organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.^[7] HP Pavilion DV4 Battery

The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible, with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method. HP Pavilion DV4T Battery

After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. John Ray developed an influentialnatural theology of rational order; in his taxonomy, HP Pavilion DV5 Battery

 species were static and fixed, their adaptation and complexity designed by God, and varieties showed minor differences caused by local conditions. In God’s benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. HP Pavilion DV5T Battery

The biological classificationintroduced by Carolus Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, Georges Buffonsuggested that some similar species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers, and leopards, HP Pavilion DV7T Battery

might be varieties descended from a common ancestor. The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world. Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism.^[8] HP Pavilion DV4000 Battery

Charles Darwin’s grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, HP Pavilion DV5000 Battery

adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction.^[9] HP Pavilion DV6100 Battery

Geoffroycontended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies. HP Pavilion DV6300 Battery

Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs.^[10] His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by localcatastrophes, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.^[11] HP Pavilion DV6500t Battery

In Britain, William Paley’s Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial ”design” by the Creator acting through natural laws. All naturalists in English universities were Church of England clergymen, and science became a search for these laws.^[12] HP Pavilion DV8000 Battery

Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood.^[13] Some anatomists such as Robert Grant were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy, but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order.^[14] HP Pavilion DV8002ea Battery

INCEPTION OF DARWIN’S THEORY

Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant’s research into marine invertebrates. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, HP Pavilion DV9000 Battery

but Darwin rejected it.^[15] AtCambridge University starting in 1827, Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow, and read Paley, John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt. Filled with zeal for science, he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick.^[16][17] HP Pavilion DV9100 Battery

In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a geologist and naturalist. He read Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore, at St. Jago, found Lyell’s uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes. HP Pavilion DV9500 Battery

Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their “centre of creation”.^[18] The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuegowere friendly and civilised, HP Pavilion DV9600 Battery

yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed “miserable, degraded savages”,^[19] and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.^[20] As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.^[21] HP Pavilion N3200 Battery

Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin’s Rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea (though their territories overlapped), HP Pavilion N5100 Battery

that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches.^[22] Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, HP Pavilion N5200 Battery

on the possibility that “one species does change into another” to explain these findings, and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, discarding Lamarck’s independent lineages progressing to higher forms.^[23] HP Pavilion N5250 Battery

Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed.^[24] HP Pavilion N5290 Battery

In late September 1838, he started reading Thomas Malthus’s An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical proof that human populations breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle’s ”warring of the species” in plants; HP Pavilion N5300 Battery

he immediately envisioned “a force like a hundred thousand wedges” pushing well-adapted variations into “gaps in the economy of nature”, so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed.^[25][26] HP Pavilion N5340 Battery

By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by “chance” so that “every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected”.^[27] HP Pavilion N5350 Battery

Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection “by which to work”,^[28] but he was fully occupied with his career as a geologist and held off writing a sketch of his theory until his book on The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was completed in May 1842.^[29][30] HP Pavilion N5390 Battery

FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage.^[29] He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842;^[31] then in June he roughed out a 35-page “Pencil Sketch” of his theory.^[32] HP Pavilion N5400 Battery

 Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his “sketch” into a 230-page “Essay”, to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.^[33] HP Pavilion N5415 Battery

In November 1844, the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers, widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. HP Pavilion N5420 Battery

 Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin’s work in progress, HP Pavilion N5425 Battery

and it ignored adaptation. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology,^[34] but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including Adam Sedgwick, attacked its morality and scientific errors.^[35HP Pavilion N5430 Battery

^] Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s.^[36] HP Pavilion N5435 Battery

Hooker was persuaded to take away a copy of the “Essay” in January 1847, and eventually sent a page of notes giving Darwin much needed feedback. Reminded of his lack of expertise in taxonomy, Darwin began an eight year study of barnacles, HP Pavilion N5440 Battery

becoming the leading expert on their classification. Using his theory, he discovered homologies showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and he found an intermediate stage in the evolution of distinct sexes.^[37] HP Pavilion N5445 Battery

Darwin’s barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, HP Pavilion N5455 Battery

he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, HP Pavilion N5470 Battery

became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.^[37][38] HP Pavilion N5490 Battery

An 1855 paper on the “introduction” of species, written by Alfred Russel Wallace, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species.^[39] HP Pavilion N6000 Battery

Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace’s paper and its possible connection to Darwin’s work, although Darwin did not, and in the spring of 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. HP Pavilion n6400 Battery

He decided he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. On 14 May 1856, he began a “sketch” account, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species.^[40] HP Pavilion N6490 Battery

Darwin was hard at work on his “big book” on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin’s recent encouragement, HP Pavilion XF100 Battery

with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin’s own theory.^[40] Darwin wrote to Lyell that “your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled” and he would “of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal” that Wallace chose, adding that “all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed”.^[41] HP Pavilion XZ100 Battery

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Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint paper should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, HP Pavilion ZD7000 Battery

by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace’s idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, HP Pavilion ZD7900 Battery

and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions.^[42][43][44] HP Pavilion ZE2000 Battery

After the meeting, Darwin decided to write “an abstract of my whole work”.^[45] He started work on 20 July 1858, while on holiday atSandown,^[46] and wrote parts of it from memory.^[47] Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III, of the publishing house John Murray,^[48] who responded immediately to Darwin’s letter of 31 March 1859^[49] HP Pavilion ZT1000 Battery

with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript, and an offer to Darwin of ²⁄₃ of the profits.^[50] (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin’s death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.^[51]) HP Pavilion ZT1125 Battery

Darwin had initially decided to call it An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray’s persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, HP Pavilion ZT1130 Battery

or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.^[1] Here the term “races” is used as an alternative for “varieties”and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to “the several races, for instance, of the cabbage” and proceeds to a discussion of “the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants”.^[52] HP Pavilion ZT1145 Battery

Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection “by which to work” by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace’s letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. HP Pavilion ZT1150 Battery

Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin’s illness caused repeated delays. HP Pavilion ZT1155 Battery

His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin’s large output of books and busy family life during that time.^[53] HP Pavilion ZT1160 Battery

A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin’s contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. HP Pavilion ZD7300 Battery

Darwin always finished one book before starting another. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full time. His estimate that writing his “big book” would take five years was optimistic.^[54] HP Pavilion ZT1170 Battery

PUBLICATION AND SUBSEQUENT EDITIONS

On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray’s autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. HP Pavilion ZT1175 Battery

In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers’ Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale.^[1] Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie’s Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library.^[55] The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860,^[56] HP Pavilion ZT1180 Battery

 and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation fromCharles Kingsley, and the phrase “by the Creator” amended to the closing sentence.^[57] HP Pavilion ZT1185 Battery

During Darwin’s lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, HP Pavilion ZT1190 Battery

An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species,^[58] while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase “survival of the fittest”, which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).^[59] HP Pavilion ZT1195 Battery

In January 1871, George Jackson Mivart’s On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included falsemetaphysics.^[60] Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word “evolution”^[61]), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart’s arguments.^[62] HP Pavilion ZT1200 Battery

The sixth edition was published by Murray on 19 February 1872 with “On” dropped from the title. Darwin had told Murray of working men in Lancashire clubbing together to buy the 5th edition at fifteen shillings and wanted it made more widely available; the price was halved to 7s 6d by printing in a smaller font. It includes a glossary compiled by W.S. Dallas. Book sales increased from 60 to 250 per month.^[62] HP Pavilion ZT1210 Battery

PUBLICATION OUTSIDE GREAT BRITAIN

In the United States, Asa Gray negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to printOriginHP Pavilion ZT1230 Battery

Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits.^[64] Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton’s of New York,^[65] who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.^[1][66] HP Pavilion ZT1250 Battery

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The book was widely translated in Darwin’s lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator’s own agenda.^[67] Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, HP Pavilion ZT1290 Battery

as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn’s own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated “favoured races” as “perfected races”,HP Pavilion ZT1270 Battery

and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn’s adherence to Naturphilosophie.^[68] In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin’s suggested additions, HP Pavilion ZT3000 Battery

but then died of a heart attack.^[69]Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867.^[70] Darwin’s attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin’s ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, HP Pavilion ZT4000 Battery

as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions.^[69][71] He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876.^[1] HP Pavilion ZV5000 Battery

A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860.^[72] By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian.^[67] In Darwin’s lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871,^[73] Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.^[74] HP Pavilion ZV5200 Battery

TITLE PAGES AND INTRODUCTION

Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws,^[75] harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton’s belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos.^[76] In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as throughmiracles, HP Pavilion ZV6000 Battery

in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends.^[57] The Introduction establishes Darwin’s credentials as a naturalist and author,^[77] then refers to John Herschel’s letter suggesting that the origin of species “would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process”:^[78] HP Pavilion ZX5000 Battery

WHEN on board H.M.S. ‘Beagle,’ as naturalist, I was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent. These facts seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species—that mystery of mysteries, as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers.^[79] Sony vaio VPCCW2S1E/B Battery

Darwin refers specifically to the distribution of the species rheas, and to that of the Galápagos tortoises and mockingbirds. He mentions his years of work on his theory, and the arrival of Wallace at the same conclusion, which led him to “publish this Abstract” of his incomplete work. He outlines his ideas, and sets out the essence of his theory: Sony vaio VPCCW2S1E/L Battery

As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, Sony vaio VPCCW2S1E/P Battery

under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be naturally selected. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.^[80] Sony vaio VPCCW2S1E/R Battery

Starting with the third edition, Darwin prefaced the introduction with a sketch of the historical development of evolutionary ideas.^[81] In that sketch he acknowledged that Patrick Matthew had, unknown to Wallace or himself, anticipated the concept of natural selection in an appendix to a book published in 1831;^[82] in the fourth edition he mentioned that William Charles Wells had done so as early as 1813.^[83] Sony vaio VPCCW2S1E/W Battery

VARIATION UNDER DOMESTICATION AND UNDER NATURE

As an illustration of artificial selection, he describesfancy pigeon breeding,^[85] noting that ”[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing”, yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon.^[86]Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) Sony VPCB11V9E/B Battery

rare abrupt changes he called “sports” or “monstrosities” (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons).^[87] Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution. Sony VPCB11X9E/B Battery

In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that “a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species” and that “species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties”.^[88] He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature.^[89] Sony VPCF11C4E/B Battery

 Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.^[85] Sony VPCF11C5E Battery

STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, NATURAL SELECTION, AND DIVERGENCE

In Chapter III, Darwin asks how varieties “which I have called incipient species” become distinct species, and in answer introduces the key concept he calls “natural selection”;^[90] in the fifth edition he adds, “But the expression often used by Mr. Herbert Spencer, of the Survival of the Fittest, is more accurate, and is sometimes equally convenient.”^[91] Sony VPCF11D4E Battery

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Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, however slight and from whatever cause proceeding, if it be in any degree profitable to an individual of any species, in its infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to external nature, Sony vaio VPCF12F4E/H battery

will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring … I have called this principle, by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term of Natural Selection, in order to mark its relation to man’s power of selection.^[90] Sony vaio VPCF12M1E/H battery

He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase “struggle for existence” in “a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another”;Sony vaio VPCF12S1E/B battery

he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: “It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms.” Sony vaio VPCF12Z1E/BI battery

He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms “which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature”.^[92] Sony vaio VPCF13E4E battery

Chapter IV details natural selection under the “infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life”.^[93] Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, Sony vaio VPCF13E8E/H battery

immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying: Sony vaio VPCF13J0E/H battery

But how, it may be asked, can any analogous principle apply in nature? I believe it can and does apply most efficiently, from the simple circumstance that the more diversified the descendants from any one species become in structure, constitution, and habits, by so much will they be better enabled to seize on many and widely diversified places in the polity of nature, and so be enabled to increase in numbers.^[94] Sony vaio VPCF13L8E/H battery

Darwin proposes sexual selection, driven by competition between males for mates, to explain sexually dimorphic features such as lion manes, deer antlers, peacock tails, bird songs, and the bright plumage of some male birds.^[96] Sony vaio VPCF13M1E/B battery

He analysed sexual selection more fully in The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). Natural selection was expected to work very slowly in forming new species, but given the effectiveness of artificial selection, he could “see no limit to the amount of change, to the beauty and infinite complexity of the coadaptations between all organic beings, Sony vaio VPCF13M1E/H battery

one with another and with their physical conditions of life, which may be effected in the long course of time by nature’s power of selection”. Using a tree diagram and calculations, he indicates the “divergence of character” from original species into new species and genera. He describes branches falling off as extinction occurred, while new branches formed in “the great Tree of life ... with its ever branching and beautiful ramifications”.^[97] Sony vaio VPCF13S1E/B battery

VARIATION AND HEREDITY

In Darwin’s time there was no agreed-upon model of heredity;^[98] in Chapter I Darwin admitted, “The laws governing inheritance are quite unknown.”^[99] He accepted a version of the inheritance of acquired characteristics (which after Darwin’s death came to be called Lamarckism), Sony vaio VPCF13S8E battery

and Chapter V discusses what he called the effects of use and disuse; he wrote that he thought “there can be little doubt that use in our domestic animals strengthens and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them; and that such modifications are inherited”, Sony vaio VPCF13S8E/B battery

and that this also applied in nature.^[100] Darwin stated that some changes that were commonly attributed to use and disuse, such as the loss of functional wings in some island dwelling insects, might be produced by natural selection. In later additions of Origin, Sony vaio VPCF13V5002B battery

Darwin expanded the role attributed to the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Darwin also admitted ignorance of the source of inheritable variations, but speculated they might be produced by environmental factors.^[101][102] However, one thing was clear: Sony vaio VPCF13Z1E/B battery

whatever the exact nature and causes of new variations, Darwin knew from observation and experiment that breeders were able to select such variations and produce huge differences in many generations of selection.^[87] The observation that selection works in domestic animals is not destroyed by lack of understanding of the underlying hereditary mechanism. Sony vaio VPCF13Z8E/BI battery

Breeding of animals and plants showed related varieties varying in similar ways, or tending to revert to an ancestral form, and similar patterns of variation in distinct species were explained by Darwin as demonstrating common descent. Sony vaio VPCF21Z1E battery

He recounted how Lord Morton’s mare apparently demonstrated telegony, offspring inheriting characteristics of a previous mate of the female parent, and accepted this process as increasing the variation available for natural selection.^[103] Sony vaio VPCF21Z1E/BI battery

More detail was given in Darwin’s 1868 book on The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication, which tried to explain heredity through his hypothesis of pangenesis. Although Darwin had privately questioned blending inheritance,Sony vaio VPCF22J1E battery

he struggled with the theoretical difficulty that novel individual variations would tend to blend into a population. However, inherited variation could be seen,^[104] and Darwin’s concept of selection working on a population with a range of small variations was workable.^[105] It was not until the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s that a model of heredity became completely integrated with a model of variation.^[106]Sony vaio VPCF22L1E battery

DIFFICULTIES FOR THE THEORY

Chapter VI begins by saying the next three chapters will address possible objections to the theory, the first being that often no intermediate forms between closely related species are found, though the theory implies such forms must have existed.Sony vaio VPCF22M1E battery

Darwin attributed this to the competition between different forms, combined with the small number of individuals of intermediate forms, often leading to extinction of such forms.^[107] The rest of the chapter deals with whether natural selection could produce complex specialised structures, and the behaviours to use them, when it would be difficult to imagine how intermediate forms could be functional. Darwin said: Sony vaio VPCF22S1E battery

Secondly, is it possible that an animal having, for instance, the structure and habits of a bat, could have been formed by the modification of some animal with wholly different habits? Can we believe that natural selection could produce, Sony vaio VPCF22S8E battery

on the one hand, organs of trifling importance, such as the tail of a giraffe, which serves as a fly-flapper, and, on the other hand, organs of such wonderful structure, as the eye, of which we hardly as yet fully understand the inimitable perfection?^[108] Sony vaio VPCF23A9E battery

His answer was that in many cases animals exist with intermediate structures that are functional. He presented flying squirrels, and flying lemurs as examples of how bats might have evolved from non-flying ancestors.^[109] Sony vaio VPCF23M1E battery

He discussed various simple eyes found in invertebrates, starting with nothing more than an optic nerve coated with pigment, as examples of how the vertebrate eye could have evolved. Darwin concludes: “If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case.”^[110] Sony vaio VPCF23Q1E battery

Chapter VII (of the first edition) addresses the evolution of instincts. His examples included two he had investigated experimentally: slave-making ants and the construction of hexagonal cells by honey bees. Darwin noted that some species of slave-making ants were more dependent on slaves than others, Sony vaio VPCF23S1E battery

and he observed that many ant species will collect and store the pupae of other species as food. He thought it reasonable that species with an extreme dependency on slave workers had evolved in incremental steps. He suggested that bees that make hexagonal cells evolved in steps from bees that made round cells, under pressure from natural selection to economise wax. Darwin concluded: Sony vaio VPCF23S1E battery

 —ants making slaves, —the larvæ of ichneumonidæ feeding within the live bodies of caterpillars, —not as specially endowed or created instincts, but as small consequences of one general law, leading to the advancement of all organic beings, namely, multiply, vary, let the strongest live and the weakest die.^[111] Sony vaio VPCF24M1E battery

Chapter VIII addresses the idea that species had special characteristics that prevented hybrids from being fertile in order to preserve separately created species. Darwin said that, far from being constant, the difficulty in producing hybrids of related species, Sony VPCCA2S1E Battery

and the viability and fertility of the hybrids, varied greatly, especially among plants. Sometimes what were widely considered to be separate species produced fertile hybrid offspring freely, and in other cases what were considered to be mere varieties of the same species could only be crossed with difficulty.Sony VPCCA2S1E/D.G4 Battery

Darwin concluded: “Finally, then, the facts briefly given in this chapter do not seem to me opposed to, but even rather to support the view, that there is no fundamental distinction between species and varieties.”^[112]Sony VPCCA2S1E/L Battery

In the sixth edition Darwin inserted a new chapter VII (renumbering the subsequent chapters) to respond to criticisms of earlier editions, including the objection that many features of organisms were not adaptive and could not have been produced by natural selection. Sony VPCCA2S1E/R Battery

He said some such features could have been by-products of adaptive changes to other features, and that often features seemed non-adaptive because their function was unknown, as shown by his book onFertilisation of Orchids that explained how their elaborate structures facilitated pollination by insects. Sony VPCCA3S1E Battery

Much of the chapter responds to George Jackson Mivart’s criticisms, including his claim that features such as baleen filters in whales, flatfish with both eyes on one side and the camouflage of stick insectscould not have evolved through natural selection because intermediate stages would not have been adaptive. Darwin proposed scenarios for the incremental evolution of each feature.^[113] Sony VPCCB2S1E Battery

GEOLOGIC RECORD

Chapter IX deals with the fact that the geologic record appears to show forms of life suddenly arising, without the innumerable transitional fossils expected from gradual changes. Darwin borrowed Charles Lyell’s argument in Principles of Geology that the record is extremely imperfect as fossilisation is a very rare occurrence, Sony VPCCB2S1E/B Battery

spread over vast periods of time; since few areas had been geologically explored, there could only be fragmentary knowledge of geological formations, and fossil collections were very poor. Evolved local varieties which migrated into a wider area would seem to be the sudden appearance of a new species. Sony VPCCB2S1E/W Battery

Darwin did not expect to be able to reconstruct evolutionary history, but continuing discoveries gave him well founded hope that new finds would occasionally reveal transitional forms.^[114][115] To show that there had been enough time for natural selection to work slowly, Sony VPCCB3S1E Battery

he again cited Principles of Geology and other observations based on sedimentation and erosion, including an estimate that erosion of The Weald had taken 300 million years.^[116] The initial appearance of entire groups of well developed organisms in the oldest fossil-bearing layers, Sony VPCCB3S1E/B Battery

now known as the Cambrian explosion, posed a problem. Darwin had no doubt that earlier seas had swarmed with living creatures, but stated that he had no satisfactory explanation for the lack of fossils.^[117] Fossil evidence ofpre-Cambrian life has since been found, extending the history of life back for billions of years.^[118] Sony VPCCB3S1E/W Battery

Chapter X examines whether patterns in the fossil record are better explained by common descent and branching evolution through natural selection than by the individual creation of fixed species. Darwin expected species to change slowly, but not at the same rate – some organisms such as Lingula were unchanged since the earliest fossils Sony VPCCB4Z1E Battery

. The pace of natural selection would depend on variability and change in the environment.^[119] This distanced his theory from Lamarckianlaws of inevitable progress.^[114] It has been argued that this anticipated the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis,^[115][120] Sony VPCCB4Z1E/B Battery

 but other scholars have preferred to emphasise Darwin’s commitment to gradualism.^[121] He cited Richard Owen’s findings that the earliest members of a class were a few simple and generalised species with characteristics intermediate between modern forms, and were followed by increasingly diverse and specialised forms, matching the branching of common descent from an ancestor.^[114] Sony VPCCB4Z1E/W Battery

Patterns of extinction matched his theory, with related groups of species having a continued existence until extinction, then not reappearing. Recently extinct species were more similar to living species than those from earlier eras, and as he had seen in South America, and William Clifthad shown in Australia, fossils from recent geological periods resembled species still living in the same area.^[119] Sony VPCCB4Z1E/W.G4 Battery

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GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION

Chapter XI deals with evidence from biogeography, starting with the observation that differences in flora and fauna from separate regions cannot be explained by environmental differences alone; South America, Africa, and Australia all have regions with similar climates at similar latitudes, Sony vaio VPCY11S1E/S battery

but those regions have very different plants and animals. The species found in one area of a continent are more closely allied with species found in other regions of that same continent than to species found on other continents. Sony vaio VPCY21S1E/G battery

Darwin noted that barriers to migration played an important role in the differences between the species of different regions. The coastal sea life of the Atlantic and Pacific sides of Central America had almost no species in common even though the Isthmus of Panama was only a few miles wide. His explanation was a combination of migration and descent with modification. Sony vaio VPCY21S1E/L battery

He went on to say: “On this principle of inheritance with modification, we can understand how it is that sections of genera, whole genera, and even families are confined to the same areas, as is so commonly and notoriously the case.”^[122] Sony vaio VPCY21S1E/SI battery

Darwin explained how a volcanic island formed a few hundred miles from a continent might be colonised by a few species from that continent. These species would become modified over time, Sony vaio VPCY22Z5008B battery

but would still be related to species found on the continent, and Darwin observed that this was a common pattern. Darwin discussed ways that species could be dispersed across oceans to colonise islands, many of which he had investigated experimentally.^[123] Sony vaio VPCYA1V9E/B battery

Chapter XII continues the discussion of biogeography. After a brief discussion of freshwater species, it returns to oceanic islands and their peculiarities; for example on some islands roles played by mammals on continents were played by other animals such as flightless birds or reptiles. The summary of both chapters says: Sony vaio VPCYB1S1E/S battery

... I think all the grand leading facts of geographical distribution are explicable on the theory of migration (generally of the more dominant forms of life), together with subsequent modification and the multiplication of new forms. Sony PCG-81111T battery

We can thus understand the high importance of barriers, whether of land or water, which separate our several zoological and botanical provinces. We can thus understand the localisation of sub-genera, genera, and families; and how it is that under different latitudes, Sony vaio VPCYA15FH/R battery

for instance in South America, the inhabitants of the plains and mountains, of the forests, marshes, and deserts, are in so mysterious a manner linked together by affinity, and are likewise linked to the extinct beings which formerly inhabited the same continent ...  Sony vaio VPCS13L8E/B battery

On these same principles, we can understand, as I have endeavoured to show, why oceanic islands should have few inhabitants, but of these a great number should be endemic or peculiar; ...^[124]  Sony PCG-5J1L battery

CLASSIFICATION, MORPHOLOGY, EMBRYOLOGY, RUDIMENTARY ORGANS

On the Origin of Species

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